The principal old time industries in the State were weaving in country looms, pottery, black smithy, bell metal and brass-metal works, goldsmithy, village carpentry, bamboo and cane works, spinning of endi, muga and mulberry silk, vegetable dyeing, wood carving, hand pounding of rice, manufacture of ivory products, etc.
Assam had a high reputation and early traditions in manufacturing cotton clothes required for her use. 'Harsa Charita' mentioned one kind of dukula cotton which was sent as a present to king Harsa by King Bhaskaravarman of Kamrupa. This Dukula was made from fine hand-spun white cotton yarn by the Assamese weavers. Cotton weaving was and still is one of the most common industries in Assam. In fact, weaving in Assam is characterized by its distinctiveness, and although most of the products are for purely utility purpose ,some of them which are used for certain occasions are of exquisite beauty, durable quality, delicate weave, dainty design and delightful colours. The beautiful handloom fabrics shows the creative genius of individual weavers whom tradition has made brilliant artisans. Traditionally, the skill in the art of weaving and spinning has always been held to be one of the highest attainments of an Assamese women. Even in a marriage proposal, proficiency of the would-be bride in Bowa-kata, i.e., skill in spinning and weaving is counted highly. During the rule of the Ahoms, elaborate arrangements were made for keeping in the 'Royal Store' sufficient quantity of clothes of different varieties for presentation to foreign courts and dignitaries. In similar references, it is also found that until the beginning of the present century the whole of the cloth requirements of every Assamese family were secured from the family handloom.
Example of references of handloom weaving that flourished in Assam in the past are found in many epigraphic, literary and foreign accounts. The Kalika Purana of the 10th century A.D. and Harsa Charita shows that fine cotton garments were used in Assam. The Kalika Purana also refers to woolen garments, Kambala used and manufactured in this country. During the Ahom period, handloom weaving was at the peak of its glory. It was rare to find an Assamese family without a loom. Momai Tamuli Barbarua, a minister of kin Pratap Singha, ordered that before the sunset every woman must spin a certain number of hanks of yarn. This rule was scrupulously followed in the Ahom kingdom to avoid punishment. In his book 'An Account of Assam', J.P.Wade observed : ''Warlike cloth is made in the following manner. At midnight the cotton is ginned, passed into rollers, spun into thread, manufactured into cloth and worn by the warriors in the morning.'' It is an old custom that the mother gives three pieces of silk garment to her daughter at the time of the latter's marriage and complete silk dress to her son-in-law when welcoming him. From early times, Eri cloth has been serving the purpose of woolens particularly amongst the less affluent section of the Assamese people. Muhammedan historians observed that Assam silk was excellent and it resembled those of China. Travernier refers to Assam silk as one ''produced on trees'' and confirms that the stuff made of them was very brilliant. Like the nobility of japan, the Ahom kings in Assam took personal care and interest in the silk industry and the royal patronage contributed a lot in attaining the high degree of its perfection. The fabrics prepared out of muga, eri and pat (mulberry silk)became the national dress of the Assamese and formed a common costume of the women of the Assam valley.
It still continues to be an important occupation even after British Rule, especially of the womenfolk. Every girl is expected to know the art of weaving. It is still customary among the Assamese, that on Bihu occasions a grown-up girl makes presents of self-woven Bihuan, (Phulam Gamosa) to her near and dear ones as a token of love and respect. It is in this context that Mahatma Ganshi once remarked, ''Assamese women are born weavers, they can weave fairy tales in their clothes.'' The Assamese women, as in the past, pursue the industry as a part-time occupation to produce the cloth required by each family, but they detest production on commercial basis. The other articles of production generally include mekhela, chadar, riha, churia, cheleng, borkapor, etc. The implements of weaving which were and still are common in almost all the Assamese families are various types of looms, ugha, chereki, mako, spinning wheel, neothani, etc.,
Next to weaving, sericulture is the most important cottage industry of the State of Assam. Extensively practiced during the agricultural off-season as a subsidiary occupation, it occupies an important place in the rural economy of the State. Assam is a leading producer of the non-mulberry silk and produces about two-thirds of India's total output and so far as the production of muga silk is concerned, the State virtually holds a monopoly over it.
The origin of the silk industry in Assam is still obscure there is hardly any doubt about its antiquity. P.C. Choudhury in his book, 'The History of Civilization of the People of Assam to the Twelfth Century A.D.' observes, ''The art of sericulture and rearing of cocoons for the manufacture of various silk cloths were known to the Assamese as early as the Ramayana and the Arthasastra.''
The classical writers beginning at least with 1st century A.D., make important mention of the production of silk and the silk trade in and through Assam. The Periplus refers to both raw and manufactured silk which were from China or Assam. ''As the industry was mainly confined in the past to the Tibeto Burman elements in Assam, it is not unlikely that along with their migration to Assam they introduced some ideas from China; but the manufacture of muga silk has been confined to Assam alone, and this land, like China, had worldwide reputation for the manufacture of varieties of silk clothes, and had a profitable foreign trade in such articles. Chinese records dating as far back as 248 A.D. mention about the trade route from the south through the Shan states, Brahmaputra river and Kamarupa to Pataliputra (present Patna)and through it, to the western part of India. The ancient trade in silk with Bhutan and Tibet, through Udalguri in the Darrang district of Assam still exists.
The unique distinction earned by the fabrics prepared out of muga, eri and pat (mulberry silk)in the Assamese life and the interest taken by Ahom nobility in rearing up the silk industry. It is due to this royal patronage during the Ahom days that the industry reached its high peak of perfection. During the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century, Assam silk especially murga, was much in demand in Europe and formed the staple trade of East India company during this period.
The varieties of silk from Assam are eri or erandi (attacus richini),made from the silk of the worm of the same name, muga (antheroea assamoea)from a cocoon of the same name and pat (pattla).
The concentration of rearers of a particular silk worm in different areas of the State depends of rainfall and climatic conditions of different parts of the State. The eri culture is done in areas where rainfall is done in areas where rainfall is fairly heavy and the atmosphere is humid, whereas mulberry silk worm thrives only under certain temperature and humidity.
Pottery is one of the age-old crafts of Assam carried on by the most antiquity method of production. The art of making pottery was known to the people of Assam from early times. As regards the history and origin of the pottery industry in Assam, it has been possible to gather that the use of pottery wares was prevalent as far back as the 5th and 6th century A.D.
The extensive remains of temple and buildings give ample evidence of working on stones and bricks. This is proved also by a number of epigraphs. The art of brick making is mentioned in the Sualkuchi grant of Ratnapala. It was highly developed at a subsequent time particularly during the Ahom period. The Nidhanpur grant mentions Kumbhakaragarta (potter's pit),and the Kamauli grant refers to the Kumbhakaras who were professional pottery makers. Some of the best specimens of pottery,with artistic and decorative designs, belonging to the 5th and 6th century A.D. Have been discovered from Dah Parvatia;some specimen have also been found in Tezpur and near Sadiya. The clay seals of Bhaskaravarman also point to the fact that the art of clay modeling was developed as far back as in the 7th century A.D. Moreover,Bana mentions among the presents of Bhaskara 'drinking vessels embossed by skilful artists, molasses in earthen pots and' cup of Ullaka diffusing a fragrance of sweet wine.
It is very difficult to give a definite note on the existence of pottery during pre-historic epoch, as no systematic study has been made, but random finding of small-sized potteries of the pre-historic times, collected during various excavations and diggings leave no doubt that the art of pottery was also popular in Assam long ago.
The existence of some chubas or villages bearing prefix 'Kumar' to their names such as Kumar Chubari, Kumargaon, etc.,is perhaps reminiscent of the pottery that flourished in these regions. In the plain districts of Assam, pottery is a hereditary occupation of the people belonging to the communities like Kumar, Hira, etc. Sir E.A. Gait, in an article in the Journal of Indian Art and, the industry published in 1898,observes that there are two distinct classes of persons engaged in the manufacture of pottery in the Brahmaputra Valley, the Hiras and the Kumars. The wood ''Kumar'' is derived from ''Kumbhakar'' and means maker of pots. The word Kumar, on the other hand, so far as the Brahmaputra valley is proper is concerned,is not used to denote persons of any particular caste or sub-caste but is applied to persons of several different castes, chiefly the Kalitas, Keot and Koch, who make or whose ancestors are remembered to have made articles of earthenware. Thus, there are Kumar Kalitas, Kumar Keots and Kumar Koches, and the people so designated continue to retain their old caste status.
''In few rare instances, persons other than Hiras and Kumars were found manufacturing earthen vessels in the Brahmaputra valley. In the Tezpur sub-division, a few people of Kaivarta caste make large earthen pots which are used for building gur. Near Dibrugarh a few families of up-country men from Arra are potters by profession. They are known locally as Hira Kumars. Such up-country potters have also settled at Golaghat.'' The present position of the Kumars is not uniform throughout the Brahmaputra valley.
In undivided Cachar district, the word 'Kumar' devotes what it does in Bengal, the separate potter caste, i.e., one of the nine professional castes (Navashakha) which are said to be descendants as the offspring from Viswakarma, the divine artisan. In Cachar district, some of the craftsmen are engaged in making only images of Gods and Goddesses.
The raw materials required for the industry are the glutinous clay and the tools and implements used are the wheel (chak),mould (athali),the mallet (hatiya piteni) and polisher (chaki).The articles made are cooking pots (such as akathiah and Khola, daskathia, charu and satar)water jars (kalah and takeli), vessels for boiling paddy (thali),larger vessels (hari and jaka), besides, lamps, pipes and drums. In the urban areas, there are small groups of potters who specialize in making the image of Hindu deities like Durga, Kali, Viswakarma and Saraswati, etc. The artisans often display an astute artistic sense in making the images, which fetch them handsome amounts. In off season, they make beautiful dolls, toys,etc., and sell in the nearby markets and melas.
Among the traditional crafts, the making of bamboo and cane products is perhaps most universally practiced by all sections of the people throughout the State. Its products may be termed as 'pure handicrafts' in which even elementary mechanical device is not used. Its products have wide range of uses and as such are commonly found in every household.
No definite records are available to establish the antiquity, history and origin of this craft in Assam. But it can be safely assumed that the crafts is being carried on since the very dawn of civilization. As a protection against the sun and rain, people used country made Japi ( sun shade) of various dimension from bamboo. The bigger one call Borjapi and noble and married ladies usually used Sarudaiya Japi. The ancient inscription, anterior to the 12th century AD it has a reference to chatra, notably the abhaga chatra sent by Bhaskarvarman to Harsavardhana through Harshavega. Manakar describes Mahadeva as carrying an umbrella and a stick while approaching Durga for alms.
Like other handicrafts, the bamboo and cane products of Assam earned wide appreciation in the past. Found mention of the use of ''well decorated and coloured Sital Pati (cool mat)'' usually made of cane. Ptolemy stated that canes were grown and used as bridge. In Harsa Charita,there is a mention of bamboo cultivation and its uses for various purposes. ''Bana testifies to this highly developed crafts. He states that Bhaskara sent to Harsa baskets of variously coloured reeds, thick bamboo tubes and various birds in bamboo cages''. From this, it may be inferred that this craft was highly developed in the past not only in the production of utility articles but also of the articles of great artistic value.
The brass and bell metal industry was highly developed throughout Assam in the past. The skill of artisans who worked on metals in the past is well proved by the existing remains of a copper temple at Sadiya and copper plates issued by the rulers. Copper and brass cups of Goalpara district known as Kansas are products of Assam of great significance.
Bell metal utensils are cast in moulds but brass vessels are made of thin sheets and pieced together. The articles manufactured by artisans mainly consist of utensils and vessels of day to day domestic use, such as 'lota' (flattish bowl with narrow neck), ban-kahi (plate with stand) ,thagi (high plate), ban-gilas (tumbler with holding stand),kharahi (through-holed tub), 'kalah' (jar for holding water), 'sarai' (high tray),saria (tub), 'temi' (small container to carry lime), 'thali' (large vessel for boiling rice),bell metal spoons,tumbler, kahi (dish), etc. Mirrors made of shinning metals were also in use in the past. Even now these mirror called dapon or darpan are used by the bride and bridegroom during marriage.
Historically, the bell metal industry dated back to the 7th century A.D. when the illustrious Ahom kings greatly patronized this industry with an unfailing zeal which was subsequently followed by an effective patronage by the heads of monasteries and landed aristrocracy. The patronage by the kings and their progenitors obviously helped the growth and development of this craft in Assam. The products of the industry soon found extensive markets in the neighbouring countries of Nepal,Bhutan and Tibet. It is a legend that king Bhaskar Varman sent a part of 'bhortal' a product of bell metal,to Harshvardhan, the king of North India in the 7th century A.D.as a token of his princely affection for him. Another Ahom king,Swargadeo Siba Singha,in recognition of the artistic genius of Jiudhan Kahar of Sarthebari for making unique bell-metal products,give him a 'tamrapatra' with the title 'Kahar Choudhury' and 40 bighas of revenue-free land.
Assam's bell-metal industry is chiefly confined in Sarthebari in Barpeta district. The most important feature of the bell metal industry is that the bulk of units (kahar sal) engaged in production are run on partnership basis as a result of the age-old system. In each unit, normally four or five artisans pool their resources under a common production programme, known as 'kahar-bhaiga' or ojapali. The artisans mutually decide to work under the master artisan 'Kahar' or 'Oja', who owns the tools and implements in such establishments and manages everything under him. The rest of the workers are known as 'Bhaigas'. In these units, in fact, the workers are not entitled to receive direct wages as the income is shared by them on the basis of mutually agreed-upon rations. The bhaigas normally get equal share and the main Kahar usually gets one and a half times the share of a Bhaigas owing to his exclusive right of ownership over the implements needed for production. In the event of the Kahar's death, either the productive unit is disbanded or a new Kahar is called upon to keep the unit running.
Blacksmithy is an important and common household industry in Assam. It is invariably found as the hereditary occupation of the household concerned. The son works as an apprentice and receives training under his father and the skill is thus carried down from generation to generation. In the plain districts,the ironsmith is known by the term 'Kamar' one of the nine professional caste groups (Nabasaka). The 'Kamars' do not like to be designated as such but prefer to continue to retain their old caste which, they claim, have descended from Viswakarma. The usual products of blacksmithy presently found all over the State are simple agricultural implements like plough-share, sickle, hoe and various implements of daily use such as 'dao' knife, axe, etc.
Blacksmithy also made hiloi (matchlocks), Toop and Bor Toop ( small and big cannons). By the middle of 17th century, the Assamese blacksmiths acquired good knowledge of casting matchlock and artillery pieces as witnessed by Talish, who wrote that Assamese "cast excellent matchlocks and bachadar artillery and show geat skill in this craft". Inscriptions on cannons also substantiate the manufacturing of quality and larger cannons since second half of the 17th century, if not earlier. On the occupation of Garhgaon, the Ahom Capital, Mir Jumla captured a stupendous quantity of war weapons which include 675 pieces of big cannons, 1343 pieces of Jambur ( camel-swivels, a type of cannon), 120 Ramchangis ( a sort of light field piece) and 6750 matchlocks.
Apart from the manufacturing of these products, the blacksmiths also undertake repair and other servicing works. Blacksmithy establishments are found in both rural and urban areas. A large number of hereditary blacksmiths for generations found in Karanga in Jorhat district. The blacksmiths of Karanga have been working in the village from several generations and are only branches of the same family. It is said that in days of Ahom rule, the blacksmiths of Karanga were specially appointed for manufacturing artilleries. The blacksmith of Karanga take pride in their ancestors whom they claim to be the manufacturers of the biggest cannon still found displayed in the compound of the court building at Sivasagar.
The chief raw materials for the industry are steel and soft iron imported from outside the State. A considerable demand for raw materials is also met from scrap iron. The chief fuel is coal but some of the blacksmiths use charcoal as well which is available from local merchants all over the State. Rural blacksmiths sometimes burn logs of wild timbers and prepare charcoal for their own use. The tools and implements used by the blacksmiths are very simple. A pair of sledge hammers, cold chisels, files, a furnace with bellows are all that they need for their working.
The industry of gold-washing in the beds of Assam rivers like the Subansiri, the Brahmaputra and the Buridihing yielded considerable quantities of gold at one time.
Gold washing was an important industry of the Ahom period and manufacture of jewelery too. Gold was washed from the sands of the Brahmaputra. Many people were engaged in gold washing. They had to pay to the royal exchequer one tola of gold per head per year. Gold could be procured from the sand at all places on the banks of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries . According to the reports on the Administration of Assam 1892-93,and 1901-02,the rivers of Assam which yielded gold were those of the Darrang and Lakhimpur districts north of the Brahmaputra, the Brahmaputra itself in its upper course, the Noa-Dihing and a small stream called Jagle, which rises in the Tipam hills and falls into the Buri-Dihing. In the Sibsagar district, the Dhansiri, the Desoi and the Jhansi were said to be auriferous. Out of these streams, the Bharali, the Dikrang and the Subansiri in Darrang and Lakhimpur seem to have formerly given the largest quantities. According to the Tezpur Grant,''The river Lauhitya carried down gold dust from the gold bearing boulders of the Kailasa mountain.'' It is also recorded that Vanamala rebuilt the fallen golden temple of Siva (Hataka Sulin)in Haruppesvara. It is probable that the reference in the Arthasastra (II,XII)to a variety of gold called Hataka, extracted from the mines of the same name, has a bearing on this and that such a mine might have existed in the mountains lying to the north of modern Tezpur or at the foot of the Himalayas. The histories of the invasion of Bakhtiyar again state that there was a huge image of gold, enshrined in a temple where the invader took refuge when he was surrounded by the Kamrupa army. According to Riyaz-us-Salatin, the gold image in the temple weighed one thousand mounds.
Gold washing operation was carried out by a guild known as the Sonowal Khel,who paid the Government a tax at four annas weight or five rupees worth of gold per annum. The State derived considerable income from the yearly tax levied on gold washing. In the early part of the British rule, gold washing industry thrived for some time but was given up ultimately as it was expensive and unprofitable.
Materials used for jwellery were gold, silver, copper and embar. Enameling, embossing, incising valuable stone and jewels in various types of metal ornaments were done by artisan working in gold and silver. F C Hennikar noted that " Raja Rudra Sing of Assam imported goldsmith from Benaras to teach Assamese how to manufacture better sorts of gold and silver ornaments".
The industry of Gold and Silversmithy is mainly concentrated in the urban areas. The artisans are from families which have been traditionally associated with the industry. The indigenous jewelers exhibit considerable amount of skill and artistic refinement in making golden ornaments such as dugdugi, goalpara, lokapara, muthi, jonbiri, keru, kayur, kankan, karachani, bena, angathi, thuria, gamkharu, etc.
This is one of the important old time industries of Assam. In Assam, the traditional carpenters who have been the important elements in a village society belong to the community Badai or Suter or Sutradhar and there is mention of this caste in 'Vedas'. Since time immemorial therefore fathers from whom the mantle has fallen on them, have been working on wood. Generally, a carpenter earns his living by building houses, manufacturing carts, ploughs, looms, furniture, icons and boats. In this context, it may also be mentioned that carved wooden articles were also common in the olden days such as Palang, Salpira, Barpira, Para, Dola, Guru Ashan, wooden doors, windows, Jatar (spinning wheel), Karon, Mako, Durpati, Nachani, etc. which were generally ornamented with carving of parrots, peacocks, and other floral designs. Most of the Sattras were patrons of good Sutra who could manufacture decorated Guru Ashan pats, Thagis, motifs for wall doors and windows and wooden figures as well as paint these. In the rural areas, most of the craftsmen carry on this industry as a subsidiary occupation.
The use of Patjar (a kind of shoe) was the exclusive privilege of the kings and nobles, the common people were not entitled to put on Patjar. They used Khadam ( a wooden sandal) and Phanati ( a flat wooden slipper with straps) when necessary.
Assam has been famous for elephants from ancient times and elephant tusks were amply available for carving or moulding into different articles. Tusk were made soft by some indigenous device and then moulded according to needs. J Donald in his Monograph of Ivory Carving in Assam says " Once an important craft of Ahom Rajahs, ivory curving has , since Assam came under the British Rule, gradually declined. In those past times, the industry throve; the workers know as Khanikars worked solely for the Rajah. This would seems to indicate that the work in those days was much valued ...... under the Rajahs the work was not altogether an optional one. There was a compulsory element. Care was taken to see that such man was kept busy at his trade; while at the same time the means of livelihood was certain".
It was largely practiced in Barpeta where figurines of deities, chariot, comb, throne ( Simhasana), etc are carved adroitly. In earlier times , even mats prepared with ivory strips were produced. One such mat is still being preserved in Auniati Sattra.
Apart from the folk music, raga-sagita was prevalent during 14th century. The musical instrments are Dhol, Khol, Dotora, Mridanga, Karatal , Singa, Dhak, Doba, Negera, Pepa, Bahi, Tokari, Tal, Khutuli, Gagona, Kah, etc widely used from the ancient time. These were produced by the local craftsmen as musical instruments.
Masks ( Mukha)is an integral part of Sattria Bhaona ( Sattria Drama) and extensively seen in all Sattras . The mask craft is still prevalent in Sattras of Majuli in Jorhat district. The masks are made of clay, wood, bamboo and cloth. They are painted suitably with lime, vermilion (hengul) , yellow arsenic ( haital), indigo and lamp black. In Sattras some of the monks are specially appointed for preparing masks; while others engaged themselves on the work of pleasure. There used to be Khanikars, painter and workers of earthen models, who were responsible for the task.
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